What Is Common Knowledge?

Common knowledge, such as the fact that the sun rises in the east, does not require citation. This is because all or most people are expected to know the information. Unfortunately, even experts on writing do not always agree about what constitutes common knowledge. Your teacher can help you to decide, but below are some guidelines that may be useful when deciding if information that you wish to include in your assignment could qualify as common knowledge. Remember, if you are not sure, it is better to be on the safe side; add a citation. The list below would generally be considered as common knowledge:

1. 1) Major historical events and dates (World War II ended in 1945)
2. 2) Geographic areas (Japan, New York City, The Nile River, The Sahara Desert)
3. 3) Famous people (Martin Luther King, Jr.)
4. 4) Well-known current events or issues (global warming, major military conflicts)

Some people also include:

1. 1) Information that can be found in any dictionary (but definitions from a dictionary must be cited)
2. 2) Common sayings (“Time flies!”); however, common sayings are not ordinarily included in essays and reports.
3. 3) Purdue University’s OWL provides the following: “Generally speaking, you can regard something as common knowledge if you find the same information undocumented in at least five credible sources.” It also says, “When in doubt, cite.” from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/02/ )

What is APA style?

Style guidelines ensure that written texts follow a clear and consistent format. The American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines are most commonly used by researchers or writers in the social sciences. The APA guidelines give examples of the general format of papers, in-text citations, and references, and are published as Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition. Purdue University’s OWL at: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html also provides a useful overview of APA style rules. In the following pages, we will give an overview of the very basic rules for citing and referencing some print sources. These rules provide a basis for understanding how to cite and reference other online sources, with or without authors, but because these rules are complex and are still undergoing change, students are asked to look for further information in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition or the overview provided by Purdue University’s OWL at: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ as well as the current APA Style Guide for Electronic References for citing online.

Note: There is no need to memorize rules. Check the rules as needed for assignments.

References and Citations

The principle: "Every citation has a matching reference”, “Every reference has a matching citation."

References

Unless your instructor indicates otherwise, please set your font to Times New Roman, 12 points, and 1.5 space everything in your paper including the list of references. Body text should be fully justified (i.e., it has a straight right edge). Note that the list of references should begin on a new page with the word “References” (centered) at the top of the page. Everything in the list must be 1.5-spaced, too, with the second line of each item indented 1/2 inch from the left margin. Please do not use any fancy spacing anywhere (i.e. between items in the reference list or in between paragraphs), no bold, and no italics for paper titles.

Basic Rules: “Every Reference has a matching Citation.”

All the sources of information used to write an assignment should appear alphabetically in a reference list in APA style at the end of your assignment. This will allow the reader to see the number and type of sources used, and to locate the sources as needed. You should use a variety of print (books, journals, magazines and newspapers, for example) and Internet sources; don’t rely on a limited number or type of source. This document will only deal with the very basic rules of APA style, taking up only print sources.

Some general rules for references:

1. 1) In general, all sources included in your reference list/ bibliography should be cited somewhere in your assignment, and all citations in your assignment should be included in the reference list/ bibliography.
2. 2) The exception to the above rule is personal communication (emails you have received from individuals or interviews you have conducted with individuals) that you have used as a source for an assignment. They are cited in the text but not included in the reference list.
3. 3) Sources in the reference list are listed in alphabetical order according to the first letter of the family name of the author of the source, or, if there is no author, the first letter of the title of the source.
4. 4) All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented half an inch, or 1.27cm from the left hand margin.
5. 5) The use of the following sources is unacceptable:
   1. Wikipedia
      1. a. If you need to get a broad overview of a topic you know nothing about, then a Wikipedia article might be a helpful starting point especially when there are references to credible authorities.
      2. b. However, Wikipedia articles are not credible authorities and cannot be used as sources for academic writing.
   2. Lectures or lecture notes

Some basic rules for writing a reference list for print sources

The following examples cover various print sources (with and without an author). For information not covered in the examples below, please go to: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Note: The way the authors are listed differs according to the total number of authors.

＊Books (with an author or several authors)

Note:

1. 1) The author’s family name is written in full and followed by only the initial of the author’s first name.
2. 2) The title of the book is in italics. All titles of longer works such as books, academic journals, magazines and newspapers (i.e. New York Times, Asahi Evening News) must be italicized.
3. 3) Capitalization rule for book reference: Author, A. (publication year). Title of book: Subtitle of book. City, NY: Publisher. If a proper noun is used in the book title, keep the capitalization in the title. (i.e. Kafka in the third example and Japan and Meiji in the fifth example above.)

＊Journal Articles

Note:

1. 1) For journals, the title of the article used for the assignment is not in italics. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first letter of the subtitle of the journal article. Proper nouns in article titles must also be capitalized (i.e. “Adam Smith” in the above example).
2. 2) The title of the journal and volume number are in italics. The first letter of all the major words in the title of the journal is also capitalized.
3. 3) The page numbers of the article must be included (not in italics and with no “pp.”).
4. 4) The issue number is only included if the journal is paginated by issue, i.e. each issue starts with page one.
5. 5) In case of electronic journals, you have to include the DOI. For more on citing online sources, see the APA Style Guide on Electronic References.

＊Newspaper or Magazine Article (with an author)

Note:

1. 1) The date includes year, month and day.
2. 2) The title of the newspaper or magazine article is not in italics and only the first letter is capitalized. The rest is in lower case except the first letter of proper nouns.
3. 3) The name of the newspaper or magazine is in italics. The first letter of all major words in the name of the newspaper or magazine is capitalized.

＊Newspaper or Magazine Article (with no author)

Note:

1. 1) If there is no author, use the title of the article (not in italics).
2. 2) The date includes the year, month and day.
3. 3) The title is not in italics; the name of the newspaper or magazine is in italics.
4. 4) The page number (i.e., p. A12) where the information can be found is included.

＊Article or Chapter in an Edited Book.

Note:

1. 1) Author, A. Title of chapter or article: Subtitle follows. (publication year). In Editor A, Editor B & Editor C (Eds.), Title of book (pp. pages of chapter or article). Publisher.
2. 2) Page numbers are preceded by “pp.”

For further information, please check the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition) or the Purdue OWL website.

In-text citations

In-text citations are citations located within the actual text of your assignment. They are an essential part of an assignment and must be included along with a complete reference list. The use of citations allows the reader to identify which sections of the assignment are borrowed from a source and which sections of the assignment are your ideas. It also helps the reader check and/or find the source, should the need arise.

Basic Rules: "Every citation has a matching reference.”

Some general rules for in-text citations:

1. 1) You must cite all information and ideas that are borrowed from a source. Citations are based on information about your sources that is contained in the reference list at the end of your assignment. (Exception: citations for personal communication, such as a personal email or an interview that you have done yourself are cited in the text but the source is not included in the reference list.)
   • ＊A. S. Smith claimed that building more roads increased rather than decreased traffic in large cities (personal communication, February 15, 2007).
   • ＊Building more roads can increase, not decrease, traffic in large cities (A. S. Smith, personal communication, February 15, 2007). (Disclaimer: This is a hypothetical example)
2. 2) Both direct quotes and paraphrases require a citation.
3. 3) Citations for direct quotes must include a page number (or a section heading or the paragraph number in cases where the source is online) to show where specifically the quote came from. In general, if you use a specific part of a source (in contrast to what the source as a whole says), it is better to include specific information “anyway”.
4. 4) If you are not sure if a citation is needed, use a citation just to be safe.
5. 5) If a source has an author, the citation includes the author’s last name and the date. If a source has no author, the citation includes the title of the source (a long title will be shortened) and the date.

Some specific rules for in-text citations for print sources:

The following in-text citation examples cover various print sources (with and without an author). For information not covered in the examples below, please check the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition) or the Purdue OWL website at: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Quotations (exact words from a source) of less than 40 words (with an author) in a print source

Original:

Source: Second Language Teaching and Learning by Nunan, D., published in 1999. Heinle & Heinle.

↓

Note:

1. 1) The original source for the citations (above) is included in the reference list at the end of the paper as: Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Heinle & Heinle.
2. 2) Quotation marks show that exact language has been borrowed from a source. Direct quotations must be exactly the same as the original source.
3. 3) The citation includes the author’s last name, the date, and the page number. All direct quotations must try to include the specific location (i.e. page number, paragraph number, or section heading, if there is no page number) where the quotation can be found.
4. 4) The author’s name is inserted into the sentence with the date in parenthesis, and the page number at the end of the quote (use paragraph number or section heading if there is no page number available).
5. 5) Citations at the end of a sentence are inserted before the final period.
6. 6) Be careful not to rely too heavily on direct quotations.

Quotations of 40 words or longer (with an author) must be block quoted:

Note:

1. 1) Long quotations are set apart from the text and indented 1/2 inch from the left margin. This is the same location as the indentation for new paragraphs.
2. 2) For block quotations, do not use quotation marks.
3. 3) The page number (or para. number or section heading in the case of online sources) in parenthesis follows the quote. Leave one space between the final period of the quoted material and the parenthesis.
4. 4) If you block quote more than one paragraph, indent another 1/2 inch to begin the new paragraph.
5. 5) If you want to omit part of the quotation, use ellipses: “Process approaches . . . focus on the steps involved in drafting and redrafting a piece of work” (Nunan, 1999, p. 272). Leave a space in between the dots.

Citing indirect sources

Primary sources and secondary sources: Examples of primary sources are speeches, letters, and public documents, which are original and first-hand. An example of a secondary source is a journal article, which analyzes and/or interprets other primary as well as secondary sources. In other words, secondary sources will typically include other secondary sources. If you want to cite a source that is cited in another source, this is called citing indirect sources. Try to go back to the original source to make sure that the information is accurate and use the original in your in-text citation and list of references.

However, if you need to cite an indirect source in your paper, signal the original source at the beginning of the sentence and include the source in the parenthesis, as follows: “Thompson claimed that ... (as cited in Smith, 1998, p. 52). Then list Smith’s work in your list of references.

Paraphrasing information and ideas from a source (with an author)

Original:

Source: Second Language Teaching and Learning by Nunan, D., published in 1999. Heinle & Heinle.

↓

Note:

1. 1) The original source for the citations (above) is included in the reference list as:
   Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Heinle & Heinle.
2. 2) The form of citations (see above) is the same whether quoting or paraphrasing. However, no page number is required with a paraphrase. Please note also that APA style recommends including the specific information (page number, section heading, para. number), too, if the source is from a very specific part of the larger work.
3. 3) To paraphrase, express the basic meaning from the source using wording and sentence structure that is completely your own. Changing just a few words is plagiarism, even when accompanied by a citation.

Paraphrasing long sections of a print source (with an author)

Original:

Source: Second Language Teaching and Learning by Nunan, D., published in 1999. Heinle & Heinle.

↓

Note:

1. 1) To paraphrase, you must completely change wording and sentence structure.
2. 2) In the paraphrased passage, it is crystal clear that the entire passage comes from Nunan. APA style allows you to omit the publication year if you are using the same source repeatedly within the same paragraph. However, if you use the same source in another paragraph (i.e. the next paragraph), you need to repeat the publication year. You need to be thorough. The page number listed in the above example is not absolutely necessary but is recommended.
3. 3) You should avoid too many paraphrases from the same source in one single assignment. Make sure you use various sources and include your own ideas and analysis.

For information on how to quote or paraphrase from an online source, check the APA Web site of Purdue University at:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Paraphrasing

To paraphrase is to borrow information or ideas from a source, but to express it in words and sentence structure that are completely your own. Beware: changing just a few words is not paraphrasing; it is plagiarism, even when accompanied by a citation. Moreover, paraphrased language must be accompanied by a citation because although the words are yours, the information or ideas have been borrowed from a source written by somebody else, which must be acknowledged.

Original:

Source: Second Language Teaching and Learning by Nunan, D., published in 1999. Heinle & Heinle.

Unacceptable paraphrase

Acceptable paraphrase

Advice for writing acceptable paraphrases:

1. 1) Read the relevant section of the source.
2. 2) Do not try to memorize the passage; just try to understand the basic meaning.
3. 3) Without looking at the source, rewrite the ideas in your own words.
4. 4) Compare your finished notes with the source to be sure your facts are correct.
5. 5) Check to be sure that you have expressed the original meaning from the source in language that is very different in wording and sentence structure.

Using Japanese Sources:

Some of you may wish to include some Japanese sources when writing a paper in English. Below you will see the source in the original Japanese and the source as it should be listed in the reference list at the end of your essay.

Japanese Books

Note:

1. 1) The information should be organized in the same way as an English source.
2. 2) The information should be written entirely in romaji, with a rough translation of the title included in square brackets just after the romaji version of the title.
3. 3) Japanese sources should be included in the reference list in alphabetical order along with your English sources.

Translation Software

You can use translation software (sometimes called machine-translation) in the process of trying to understand what is written in a source, but when you include the information in your essay, you need to rewrite the passage to make sure that it makes sense and include proper citation and documentation, just like you would for any other source of information that is neither uniquely yours or common knowledge. The use of translation software to write all or part (even a single sentence) of an assignment without proper documentation is prohibited as academically dishonest. If your teacher determines that you have been academically dishonest, you will face the same kind of sanctions as you would for “regular” plagiarism.